Christianity and Africa are inseparable. The two are intertwined deeply in the history and development of the other. Christianity is not foreign to African soils. It is not a religion brought in by fumbling European missionaries in suits with sunburned noses. No, from its conception, Africa has been there and has made invaluable contributions to the evolution of the faith. Yet Christianity has also had a profound impact on the development of Africa. The evolution and history of the faith has held an irrevocable role in the evolution of the cultural landscape and history of the continent. Despite the continual rise and fall of empires, power struggles, and battles to define and understand itself and its role, Christianity has persevered on the continent and remains a vibrant force for change and movement even today. Through this article, the impact of Africa on Christianity and of Christianity on Africa will be explored through four stages of history: initial expansion from the first century to the seventh century of the current era, the disintegration of empires from the seventh century to the fifteenth century, the rise of commercial-religious expansion during the fifteenth to the nineteenth century, and finally the modern missionary movement from the nineteenth century to the modern day.
I.) First to Seventh Century C.E.: Birth of ChristianityAfrica has been involved in the development of Christianity even before the very death and resurrection of Jesus, the cornerstone and foundation of the faith. According to Biblical traditions, Africans were present at nearly all of the major events in the formation of the faith. Africans were a part of Jesus’ infancy, his crucifixion, the onset of the first church, and the subsequent expansion of the church. The writings of Matthew teach that Jesus spent a few of his formative years in Egypt with his parents, Mary and Joseph after fleeing the wrath of King Herod[1]. Later on, according to the writings in the Gospels, Africa again came a part of the tradition during Jesus’ crucifixion. Simon from Cyrene, Libya, carried Jesus’ cross when Jesus had fallen from exhaustion and could no longer carry it[2]. During the Jewish feast of Pentecost, after the ascension of Jesus in which the first Christian church emerged, two African men were named as being present during Pentecost[3] and the book of Acts tell of Phillip converting and baptizing an Ethiopian Eunuch he met on the road and converted[4].
After the establishment of the first Christian Church movement in the first century and on until the 7th century of the Common Era, Africa still held an important role in the development of the faith. During this period, Christianity underwent an extensive formative process as the Church struggled to come into being and then later to define itself. The initial birthing pains of the Church watered the lands of the Roman Empire in the blood of martyrs. Yet this persecution, instead of dampening the faith, seemed instead to fuel it and Christianity spread like wildfire across the Empire and beyond. During this era, the faith spread throughout northern and eastern Africa, and became established in Egypt, Ethiopia, Nubia, and North Africa. African Christians were not exempt from martyrdom as even St. Cyprian, the bishop of Carthage, was martyred in 258 for refusing to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods[5]. As early as 180, it is recorded in the Acts, the earliest authentic document on Christianity in North Africa, that 12 Christians from Scilla (or Scillium) in Numidia were executed under the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius for refusing to recant[6].
The conversion of Constantine in 312 CE and subsequent Christianizing of the Roman Empire quickly stilled the persecution of the infant Church. The Church all the sudden found itself in a position of power. All the energy that the saints had spent on surviving outwardly was suddenly enabled to turn inward and focus on the defining of Church beliefs and doctrines. As the Church no longer had to worry about being fed to lions and hiding in catacombs, the Church could now worry about what those within its confines of faith believed and adhered to. With the diversity inherent in its converts, doctrinal disputes were unavoidable. These disputes were necessary in order to determine and define what Christianity was and was not. The doctrinal disputes between the Donatists and Monophysites, the Pelagianists and the Arians, the Gnostics and the Judiazers all led to a need for the Church to decide what it was by deciding what it was not. Ecumenical councils were called together to determine official positions of the Universal Church on theological disputes[7]. These disputes, though an unavoidable part in the development of Christianity, were conducted in painful and needlessly bloody manners, and created great rifts and chasms between groups.
African Christianity was itself in dispute with more than half of the Christians in North Africa being Donatists, especially in Numidia, and this created a large division between different branches of the faith[8]. These doctrinal disputes led to the declaring of many to be deemed as heretics (which in many cases were most of the African versions of Christianity, especially the Monophysite beliefs held by the Coptic Church). These doctrinal disputes were sometimes peaceful, and oftentimes horrifically not. Though many of the manners in which these conflicts were quelled were less than savory and even, less than “Christian”, the conflicts themselves (not the way in which they were solved) were necessary for the evolution of the faith.
While Christianity struggled to define itself, there arose a great many brilliant minds that greatly impacted the development of the faith. Their works and writings and ideas influenced and laid foundations for the Church for the following hundreds and thousands of years, many still being read today. Appropriately enough, many of these influential individuals were of African blood; men such as Tertullian, Origen, and Clement of Alexandria had a profound impact that is still felt. Pachomius and Anthony developed the monastic tradition which was later carried into Europe and used to spread the faith throughout the world[9]. The most impacting African of the era, and one of the most influential writers in Christianity[10], was Augustine of Hippo whose writings are still recognized by both European and African Christians and a part of traditions even today.
While African minds were influencing the evolution of Christian thought, Christianity was transforming the cultural landscape of Africa in Egypt, Ethiopia, Nubia, and North Africa. The most influential African church began was founded in Egypt. Tradition holds that St. Mark founded the church in Egypt as early as 40-60 CE and the church in the ancient Hellenistic city of Alexandria became a center of Christendom. The Coptic Church, as it later came known to be called, spread Christianity through Africa and despite persecution and Islamic invasion, has continued to the present day.[11]
Nubia’s conversion came during the 6th century when the Egyptian monk, Julian traveled through Nobatia preaching the gospel. By 652 CE, the last of the three Nubian kingdoms had converted. This area produced a flourishing of religious art and architecture during this era[12]. The church in North Africa was well established, especially in Carthage which became another flourishing center of Christendom. Christianity spread remarkably quickly in North Africa, so much so that by 312 there were at least 70 bishops in Numidia[13].
Christianity is deeply interwoven into the fabric of Ethiopia. With the conversion of the Ethiopian Eunuch in the book of Acts and Eusebius’ account stating that the apostle Matthew “spread seed of the church to Ethiopia”[14] Christianity has had a presence in the country ever since the beginning. Whatever its original origin may be, the country itself was not notably Christianized until the mid-fourth century with the arrival of scholars from Alexandria who converted the Axumite king[15]. St. Frumentius is given credit for introducing the people of Ethiopia to Christianity. He was a slave of the king in the Axumite court, and brought Christianity to the court and to the people. King Ezana eventually accepted Christianity and Frumentius was ordained the bishop of the Ethiopian church[16] . Christianity spread throughout the country and became infused with many traditional Ethiopian elements[17]. Aksum remained a Christian nation from the 4th century until 7th or 8th century.
II.) Seventh to Fifteenth Centuries C.E.: Disintegration of Empires The next era in history, during the 7th-15th century, saw a profound disintegration of the previously established Christian empires and retraction and isolation of the Church. Theological disputes had turned church energies inward causing the Church to gradually grow more and more disunited and weak. The Roman and Byzantine “Christian” Empires became so busy quarrelling amongst themselves that they began to disintegrate and lose territory. With the rise of Islam, most of the empires fell apart. The rapid spread of Islam over North Africa from 640-711 “effectively ended the presence of Christianity”[18]. The areas most weakened through internal struggles, especially where the Monophysite belief had been dominant, were where Islam most effectively expanded. By 700, Alexandria, one of the oldest patriarchal churches and the most important Christian center in Africa, had been lost[19].
During this season, Africa lost much of its Christian influence, but not all. Christianity remained a permanent part of the landscape in certain well-established and hidden parts of the continent. In Nubia and Egypt, many converted to Islam rather than face the persecutions of Islam. Yet the taxation and persecution that the spread of Islam brought to these areas could not permanently stamp out the impact of Christianity in these areas. A few stubbornly held onto their Christian traditions. In Nubia, for example, the Muslims came in 652 and captured Dongola, the last Christian stronghold. Strangely enough, the Muslim conquerors treated the Nubian Christians differently than most areas they took over. Instead of forcing them to convert or suppressing their freedom, the Muslims and Christians agreed on a treaty which they called a bakt. This treaty was a “highly unusual move for the time” and “guaranteed a strong measure of autonomy and religious freedom to Nubia”.[20] Dongola remained Christian until 14th century and Alwa held on until the 16th century when it finally fell to the Ottomans.
(pictured: Rock Church in Lalibela)
Ethiopia also survived the Muslim onslaught, but not without injury. It was effectively separated from the rest of Christendom and became a church turned inward, isolated from the outside world. During the 12th-13th centuries, Christianity still continued to spread southward in the country. Christianity’s influence can be seen in the art, architecture, government and culture of the time being, entrenched into every aspect of Ethiopia. During this era Ethiopian religious art and architecture flourished, producing some of the greatest achievements of the country, including the massive rock-hewn churches in Axum and Lalibela. Christianity was given its own uniquely Ethiopian color and flavor during this period of incubation, separated from the rest of the world by the Muslim strongholds. [21]
III.) Fifteenth to Nineteenth Centuries C.E.: Age of European Expansion The 15th-19th centuries saw a rise of commercial-religious expansion through the efforts of European explorers and missionaries. Within ten years of the first Portuguese ship rounding the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, their ships had explored up the East Coast of Africa[22]. This contagious surge of exploration spread across Europe as efficiently as the Plague and quickly brought ships full of would-be explorers and merchants onto Africa’s rich, red soil. In these foreign hearts, politics and religion remained inextricably linked. In a marriage of selfishness and selflessness, greed and charity, Christianity was carried on European ships to parts of Africa before unaffected by the faith. Eastern, western, and southern coasts of the continent felt the impact of the influx of European beliefs and customs, from South Africa to Kenya to Benin and to the Congo. While this movement did create a sudden burst of Christianity around the coasts of the continent, it did not leave a lasting impression in the hearts of the people.
(pictured King Nzinga)
The kingdom of the Kongo received missionaries in 1491who came with the intent and purpose of converting the king and controlling commerce. This two-fold goal gave exploitation a blunter edge. The Manikongo King Nzinga was the first to receive the Portuguese and later he and his entire court converted to Christianity. Yet much of his conversion and the conversions of the court were influenced by wealth and power politics more so than any genuine change of belief[23]. King Nzinga’s son, Alfonso I (1461-1543), however, was a sincere and passionate convert and proceeded to make Christianity the official state religion and encouraged the Portuguese missionaries to continue to come and convert his people[24].
The Kongo wasn’t alone. A Roman Catholic mission was created in Cairo in 1630, Mozambique had one king baptized in 1652, and South Africa saw its share of converts. Mombasa had its own share of Portuguese priests at Fort Jesus until they were finally killed and expelled. Even Ethiopia received Jesuit missionaries from 1564-1622.[25]
While Christianity began to influence areas that it had never touched before and places previously isolated from the rest of Christendom were suddenly exposed to different ways of worship, Christianity did not leave a lasting impression on African soil despite the efforts of these European missionaries. The goal of political/commercial expansion and the salvation of souls for Christianity were conflicting, often diametrically opposed purposes that made it necessary for one to be chosen over the other and, more often than not, economic goals won out.
In the Kongo, the Portuguese two-fold goal began to be more and more lop-sided as they pursued economic gains with much more vigor than they pursued spiritual. They continued to put more and more pressure on the kingdom to provide them with slaves, even going so far as to kidnap people in the king’s own family. By 1613, King Alvare II resorted to the Vatican to try to reassert authority that had been stolen by the Portuguese. He complained in a letter to the Pope that “the Christian religion is making no progress because there are no priests...the foreign priests who come to the Congo have no preoccupation other than that of enriching themselves and returning to their countries; they take no interest in gaining souls for heaven.”[26] The Portuguese had created more of a commercial empire with a Christian rationalization than a Christian kingdom. Across Africa, the European missionaries’ use of politics to develop the church and the church to develop politics failed. No viable Christian structures lasted beyond the deteriorating abandoned archeological relics until the 1880’s[27].
IV.) Nineteenth Century to Today: Modern Missions to Reverse Mission The dawning of the 19th century continued to see Africa impact Christianity around the world. The slave trade between the Western world and African world led to unavoidable controversy, increasing in its uncomfortable gnawing at the consciences of the perpetrating cultures. This dichotomy and conflict between commercial and ethical/moral goals continued to rise until more and more advocates began to condemn the slave trade until it was finally abolished. This movement in the British Empire became “the engine to drive the modern missionary movement, especially the Protestant missions.”[28]
(Pictured: German East Africa from German Federal Archive)
Soon, new missionary societies sprung up all over the U.S. and Europe, including a reformation in Catholic missions. This new movement saw a change in approach where it no longer focused its attention on the kings, rulers, and princes. Instead of seeking to convert the elite and so force conversion upon the masses, the modern missions’ movement sought to convert the ordinary people. Individuals came to convert individuals instead of nations converting nations. This new movement also focused on the underdogs and marginal members of society and the ordinary folks. It sought to train the indigenous people for the clergy and find ways for peaceful, social change[29].
African cultures played an important role in the development of this new movement. For much of Christian history, foreign missionary endeavors have been ignorant on the importance of anthropological methods and an understanding of a native people’s language and worldview. Over time, missionaries finally began to realize that European Christians are distinct from Asian ones which are distinct from African ones. For too long, Christianity was imported into Africa in a strictly European cultural shell that was near impossible for indigenous peoples to understand or conform to. Only when the Gospel was garbed in their traditional clothes could it be swallowed and fully digested in a meaningful way, as it had in Ethiopia and Egypt.
Christianity had an explosive impact on the continent. Europeans, both missionaries and not, had imported many of their values and political systems, some for good and some for ill, yet regardless of that, they came and became a part of the identities of the people. The modern missions’ movement brought trends in linguistic work and cultural ethnography that had profound effects both for Christianity and for the people themselves[30].
While under colonial control, the continent housed approximately 8.7 million Christians in 1900. By 1962, there were 60 million and by 1998, there were 350 million. It is important to note that the explosion of growth of Christianity came “after the end of colonial rule.”[31]
The twentieth century saw an upsurge in nationalism as Africans sought to throw off the yoke of colonialism and stand in their own independence. This movement also impacted Christianity in Africa as concurrently, Africa saw a rise in indigenous, independent church movements. Africa is still in the process of defining what Christianity looks like when stripped of its foreign elements, brought down to the bare essentials of the faith, and transplanted in its own soil. Conflicts still remain between the leftover scars and mistakes from Colonialism, as well as the power struggles facing African nations as they struggle to survive. And so, Christianity too is facing a power struggle as it seeks to decide whether to remain connected with foreign assistance or struggle for itself.
The twenty first century sees one fifth of the entire global church located in Africa. While overall numbers of Christians have declined in Europe, Africa has seen continual growth.[32] Christianity can no longer be called a “Western” religion or a “white man’s” religion as the global center of Christianity continues to shift away from North American and Europe and to South America, Africa, and Asia. Andrew F. Walls makes the argument that in the same way the secular world of academia has learned that in order to understand modern Africa, “it is necessary to know something about Christianity” so in the theological world, “if one wishes to study modern Christianity, it is necessary to know something about Africa.”[33] The future of global Christianity is and will continue to be heavily influenced by African Christianity.
One example of this can be seen in what has been called “reverse mission.” African immigrants are now sending Christian missionaries back to their former colonial masters, and to other parts of the world and bringing new expressions of Christianity into de-Christianized European cities[34]. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu’s research among diaspora churches found that “some of the largest congregations in Europe-Western and Eastern-are either founded by Africans or are led by people of African descent.” He also argues that, while they may have started as primarily immigrant churches, many have not remained so and have branched out into the surrounding communities and cultural groups. These African-led churches are bringing African Christianity outside of Africa and to the rest of the world, breathing new life into dwindling European churches. [35]
Similar to Europe, the U.S. is also seeing an influx of African Christians who see themselves not only as immigrants but as missionaries. Jannel Bakker (citing R. Stephen Warner) argues that “we are witinessing not so much the de-Christianization of American society as the de-Europeanization of American Christianity.”[36] This is expected to continue as the number and influence of African migrants continues to rise in the U.S. (and, incidentally, Africa has more Christians than the U.S. has people).
Now as we march forward in the 21st century, both Africa and Christianity will face a whole new onslaught of questions and challenges. As Africa becomes a new heartland for Christianity and whispers change to the global Christian church through missionaries and immigrants around the world, it is clear that the future of both will remain inextricably intertwined.
In conclusion, Africa has been an essential part of the history of Christianity since before its conception as a world religion. Africa’s contributions to the faith cannot be understated, nor would Christianity have been the same religion without it. Yet, neither would Africa have been the same without Christianity. They have evolved together. They have undergone struggles in trying to understand what they mean to each other and how to interpret and react to changing global conditions. It has a spotted and blood-stained history, colored by greed and disagreements. Empires have come and gone. Kings have lived and died. Yet it also has a glorious and powerful history of overcoming evil and surviving despite intense persecution, injustice, and marginalization and shaping global world events through the influence of both.
[1] Matthew 2:13-23
[2] Matthew 27:32
[3] Acts 2:8-10
[4] Acts 8:26-40
[5] “Christianity,” Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: Ancient Africa (prehistory to 500 CE) V I, ed. William Page, 5 vols. (USU: The Learning Source, LTD, 2005) 55.
[6] "Scillitan Martyrs." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2006 <
http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9001247>.
[7] “Christianity,” Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: Ancient Africa Vol I 44
[8] "North Africa." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2006 <
http://search.eb.com/eb/article-46477>.
[9] “Christianity: Missionary Enterprise,” Encyclopedia of Africa South of the Sahara, Volume I, ed. John Middleton (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1997) 290.
[10] Bamber Gascoigne, Christianity: A History. (New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2003) 35.
[11] “Christianity,” Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: Ancient Africa Vol I 55.
[12] “Nubia,” Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African Kingdoms (500-1500 CE) Vol II
[13] "North Africa." Encyclopædia Britannica.
[14] “Christianity: Missionary Enterprise,” Encyclopedia of Africa South of the Sahara, Vol I.
[15] Joseph E. Holloway, An Introduction To Classical African Civilizations. (Northridge: New World African Press, 2002) 93.
[16] Terri Koontz, Mark Sidwell, S.M. Bunker. World Studies for Christian Schools. (Greenville: Bob Jones University Press, 2000) 114.
[17] “Christianity, influence of,” Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African Kingdoms (500-1500 CE) Vol II. 47-48.
[18] “Christianity, influence of,” Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African Kingdoms (500-1500 CE) Vol II. 47-48.
[19] Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1976) 170
[20]“Christianity, influence of,” Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African Kingdoms (500-1500 CE) Vol II. 47-48.
[21] “Christianity, influence of,” Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African Kingdoms (500-1500 CE) Vol II. 47-48.
[22]Bamber Gascoigne 125.
[23]Holloway, 152. .
[24] “Alvare II and Alvare III, Kings of Congo,” Documents from the African Past, ed. Robert O. Collins (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2001) 85-86.
[25] “Christianity, Influence of,” Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850 CE) Vol III. 52-54.
[26] [26] “Alvare II and Alvare III, Kings of Congo,” Documents from the African Past. 86.
[27] “Christianity: Missionary Enterprise,” Encyclopedia of Africa South of the Sahara, Vol I. 292.
[28] “Christianity: Missionary Enterprise,” Encyclopedia of Africa South of the Sahara, Vol I. 292.
[29] “Christianity: Missionary Enterprise,” Encyclopedia of Africa South of the Sahara, Vol I. 291.
[30] “Christianity: Missionary Enterprise,” Encyclopedia of Africa South of the Sahara, Vol I. 292.
[31] Sanneh, 18, quoted by Harold A. Netland. “Introduction: Globalization and Theology Today,” Globalizing Theology: Belief and Practice in an Era of World Christianity. Craig Ott and Harold. A. Netland, eds. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006. 14-34.
[32] Timothy Tennent. Theology in the Context of World Christianity. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007. 8-9
[33] Andrew F. Walls. “Globalization and the Study of Christian History,” Globalizing Theology: Belief and Practice in an Era of World Christianity. Craig Ott and Harold. A. Netland, eds. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006. 70-82.
[34] Lily Kuo. “Africa’s ‘Reverse Missionaries’ are Bringing Christianity Back to the United Kingdom,” Quartz Africa. 11 Oct 2017. https://qz.com/africa/1088489/africas-reverse-missionaries-are-trying-to-bring-christianity-back-to-the-united-kingdom/ Accessed 11 October 2018.
[35] Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu. “African-led Christianity in Europe: Migration and Diaspora Evangelism,” Lausanne World Pulse Archives. July 2008. http://www.lausanneworldpulse.com/themedarticles-php/973/07-2008. Accessed 11 October, 2018.
[36] Janel Kragt Bakker. “Every Migrant a Missionary: Immigrant Christians in America,” Bearings Online. 20 March 2014. https://collegevilleinstitute.org/bearings/every-migrant-missionary-immigrant-christians-america/ Accessed 11 October 2018.
